Sajjad Moradi-Moghaddam; Hamid Reza Fallahi; Mohammad Ali Behdani; Sohrab Mahmoodi
Abstract
Introduction: Environmental factors, especially temperature, are very important in the proper occurrence of saffron flower initiation stage during summer. In areas affected by heat stress, any factor that reduces the stress intensity seems to be beneficial in improving saffron reproductive growth. ...
Read More
Introduction: Environmental factors, especially temperature, are very important in the proper occurrence of saffron flower initiation stage during summer. In areas affected by heat stress, any factor that reduces the stress intensity seems to be beneficial in improving saffron reproductive growth. Corm storage under desired environmental condition is a potential strategy, when saffron is grown as an annual crop. In perennial saffron plantation, where the corms spend the flowering stage in the soil, other solutions should be considered for the proper occurrence of the flowering stage. One of these solutions is to use plant residues in the field surface to reduce the soil temperature. The presence of plant residues causes shading on the soil surface, increases the amount of sunlight reflection, reduces evaporation from the soil, regulates the moisture content of the soil, and reduces the temperature at the depth of the corm placement. Another possible solution to adjust the soil temperature during the flower initiation phase of the corm is to carry out summer irrigation, but there is not enough certainty about its usefulness. Therefore, the aim of the current experiment was to investigate the effect of storage conditions of corms, as well as the effect of summer irrigation and the application of plant residue mulch on saffron flowering.
Materials and Methods: To investigate the effect of corm storage conditions on saffron reproductive growth an experiment was carried out as complete randomized block design with seven treatments and three replicates during 2019 growing season, in Qaen, Iran. Experimental treatments were three types of corm storage inside the soil [corm planting in 5th June (A) with natural soil temperature as control, A + summer irrigation in 5th August and A + mulch application obtained from wheat residues at the rate of 8 ton ha-1)] and three types of corm storage outside the soil [Corm storage at room (ambient temperature) for three months started from 5th June + corm planting in 5th September (B), Corm storage in constant temperature (25 oC and relative humidity of ~40 %) in incubator for three months + B, three months corm storage at variable temperature in incubator (one month in 20, 25 and 20 oC) + B and corm storage in room (up to 5th August) and incubator (up to 5th September) + B.
Results and Discussion: Results showed that summer irrigation increased the number, length and weight of cataphylls compered to control. Corm storage outside the soil (room or incubator) reduced the weight and length of cataphylls. Control and summer irrigation treatments had no significant different in terms of flower number, flowering rate and flower yield, but were superior to other treatments in terms of all the mentioned traits, especially compared with the room storage treatment. The highest values of mean flower weight (0.37 g), flower length (7.6 cm) and stigma length (2.83 cm) were obtained in mulch application treatment. Mulch application failed to improve flower and stigma yields, despite decreasing the soil temperature during the flower initiation stage. The highest values of stigma yield were gained at control, summer irrigation and mulch application (8.07, 7.28 and 6.40 kg ha-1, respectively), which were significantly more than those obtained at room storage (3.24 kg ha-1), storage in incubator with variable temperature (3.68 kg ha-1), storage in room and incubator (3.89 kg ha-1) and storage in incubator with constant temperature (4.28 kg ha-1).
Conclusion: Overall, the passage of saffron flower initiation stage inside the soil significantly improved the flowering of the plant compared to the passage of this period outside the soil under room or incubator conditions.
SeyyedeAtefeh Hosseini; Hassan fallah
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron with the scientific name Crocus sativus L belongs to the lily family (Iridaceae) and is one of the most important economic and strategic products of the country, which is important to investigate its limiting factors. Saffron is an strategic plant in Razavi Khorasan that has been ...
Read More
Introduction: Saffron with the scientific name Crocus sativus L belongs to the lily family (Iridaceae) and is one of the most important economic and strategic products of the country, which is important to investigate its limiting factors. Saffron is an strategic plant in Razavi Khorasan that has been played an important role in economy of this area in particular in Khaf city. According to statistical methods, 89% of saffron production is produced in Iran. Saffron has been infected by several viruses but until now there is not any report of infection with that is important species in potyviridae family and cause many symptoms on other produscts. Bean common mosaic virus is a member of potyviridae family with the positive single strand RNA genome that has rod-shaped particles caused decrease in quality and quantity in many plants, in this research, detection and molecular characterization of BCMV has been surveyed.
Materials and Methods: In order to detect and identify Bean common mosaic virus as one of the limiting factors in saffron farms, sampling of 705 samples of saffron in Khorasan Razavi province, Khaf city was carried out during the spring of 1402. The saffron samples had mosaic symptoms, dwarfism, plant deformation and zigzagging, which were transferred to the laboratory under cool conditions. Then their total RNA was extracted by Denazist Kit and RT-PCR test was carried out, using specific primers of the coat protein gene. The PCR products were electrophoresed. Results showed that in the three saffron samples, a fragment of 343 base pairs was amplified. The amplified fragments were reproduced, then extracted from gel and then 3 amplicons were sent to Macrogen Korea for sequencing. Coat protein sequences were analyzed by Blast n and aligned by Bioedit, phylogenetic tree was draw using BCMV sequences of the world and Iran, homology matrix was obtained using Sdtv.
Results and Discussion: In RT-PCR 14 saffron samples were amplified that 3 samples were chosen for sequencing. The results confirmed the infection of three saffron samples with the mentioned virus, and in the phylogeny studies of three saffron isolates in the nucleoprotein coding region of the mentioned virus, compared to the world isolates available in the gene bank, which were related to different geographical regions, five separate groups were formed, from three Iranian isolate related to saffron, two isolates (B1, B2) were placed in group 4 close to isolates from Brazil and one isolate (B3) was placed in group 5 close to two isolates from Iran (Ahvaz and Zanjan). The most similarity of the isolates in this research was between two Iranian isolates B1 and B2 with three isolates MW534342, MW534343 and MW534344 from the country of Brazil from the African continent with a similarity percentage of 100% and also the least similarity of the Iranian isolates B1, B2 and B3 with isolate KC702888 from Iran in Lorestan with a similarity level of 71%.
Conclusion: This is the first survey of this virus in Razavi Khorasan that showed the infection of saffron field of Khafe city as one of the major areas of production of this product. Phylogenetic analysis of this virus showed that khaf isolates were located in two different groups that could be the result of different sources for entering of this virus in this area. The reason of separation of 3 isolates in different group should be the recombination among them. Although we detected many symptoms in the saffron fields BCMV was not detected in some of them. The reason behind of this could be related to the infection by other plant viruses that needs to be more investigated in the next scientific research.
Robab Ghahramanzadeh; Surur Khorramdel; Mahna Ghotb Ssharif; Sara Ghahramanzadeh
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the oldest plants in Iran and plays a significant role in improving the economic and social status of farmers. However, its production mostly relies on indigenous knowledge (Koocheki et al., 2009), and its yield is considerably lower compared ...
Read More
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the oldest plants in Iran and plays a significant role in improving the economic and social status of farmers. However, its production mostly relies on indigenous knowledge (Koocheki et al., 2009), and its yield is considerably lower compared to other producing countries (Koocheki et al., 2012). According to available statistics, there is at least a 70% yield gap in saffron crop in Iran (Koocheki, 2018).Nutrients, especially towards the end of the growing season (Bertheloot et al., 2008; Dordas, 2009), play a crucial role in improving flower yield of saffron. Nutrient availability is considered as one of the most effective factors in promoting the growth of daughter corms (Koocheki et al., 2014; Koocheki & Seyyedi, 2015). This study aimed to assess the impact of potassium (as KTS®) and calcium (as CaTs®) thiosulphates on soil chemical properties, as well as the quantitative yield of saffron such as leaves, daughter corms, and flower of saffron under on-farm conditions. Materials and Methods: This experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications under on-farm management in Zaveh, Torbat-e Heydariyeh county, Khorasan-e Razavi, Iran during the 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 growing seasons. The treatments included: T1: conventional on-farm management as control, T2: T1+application of 40 liters of KTS per ha three times, T3: T1+application of 20 liters of KTS per ha three times, T4: T1+application of 50 liters of CaTs per ha four times, T5: T1+application of 100 liters of CaTs per ha two times and T6: T1+application of 67 liters of CaTs per ha three times. KTS and CaTs were applied as soil treatment with irrigation. The study assessed several traits, including flower yield indices (such as flower numbers, fresh weight of flower, dried weight of stigma per m2 and stigma length), leaf growth (including leaf length and leaf dried weight), daughter corm yield (such as number of daughter corms, dried weight of daughter corms per m2, daughter corm diameter and mean weight of daughter corm), and soil properties (including pH, EC, total N, available P, and available K). Results and Discussion: The results showed that the application of potassium fertilizers (KTS) and calcium (CaTs) had a significant effect on various indices related to flowers, and leaves, as well as on the soil chemical properties. T6 had the highest and T5 had the lowest stigma dry weights. Similarly, the highest and lowest number of daughter corms were obtained in T6 and T5 treatments, respectively. The highest leaf length and dry weight of leaves were observed in T6. The highest and lowest of daughter corm numbers (with 7950 and 1865 corms.m-2, respectively) and dried weight of daughter corms (equal to 24579 and 7859 g.m-2, respectively) were belonged to T6 and T5, respectively. Furthermore, the highest and the lowest levels of available potassium content in the soil were observed in the first stage for T4 and conventional management (with 625 and 254 mg.kg-1, respectively), respectively. The highest levels of this characteristic were observed in the second, third, fourth, and fifth stages for T3 (with 671, 697, 723, and 758 mg.kg-1, respectively), while the lowest levels were associated with conventional agricultural management (equal to 233, 217, 201, and 189 mg.kg-1, respectively). Conclusion: Based on the results, T6 was identified as the best treatment for saffron farms in Zaveh. The study suggests that paying close attention to the balance of nutrients and chemical parameters of soil can significantly improve crop yield and soil fertility in saffron farms. The application of calcium and potassium thiosulfate fertilizers as soil amendments during the growth season resulted in a decrease in pH and available phosphorus content, as well as an increase in electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, and available potassium content in the soil. Therefore, the use of KTS and CaTs fertilizers as thiosulphate are recommended for achieving sustainable production, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas where potassium and calcium are crucial for saffron cultivation. To determine the impact of these fertilizers on the intended soil properties, it is advisable to conduct further and more extensive studies on their application in saffron farms.
Mohammed Hossein Aminif; Mohammad Ali Behdani; Masoome Shakeri; Seyed Jalal Tabatabaei
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) belongs to the Iridaceae family, whose dry stigmas are the most expensive spices in the world and are widely used in food and pharmaceutical industries. Correct management of planting density is one of the most important factors in the formation of saffron yield. ...
Read More
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) belongs to the Iridaceae family, whose dry stigmas are the most expensive spices in the world and are widely used in food and pharmaceutical industries. Correct management of planting density is one of the most important factors in the formation of saffron yield. Choosing the appropriate planting density in saffron, while increasing the exploitation of this agriculture, increases the yield and reduces the period between planting and economic yield. On the other hand, gibberellins are classified as a diverse group of plant growth regulators that enhance some physiological and biochemical pathways in plants. Gibberellins are involved in many plant development processes and the improvement of some desirable traits such as increasing stem length, uniform flowering, reducing time to flowering, and increasing flower weight. Also, considering that the study of planting density factors and the simultaneous application of gibberellic acid hormone on the qualitative traits of the saffron medicinal plant has not been done, the purpose of this experiment is to investigate the effect of dense cultivation and gibberellic acid hormone on the antioxidant activity and effective substances of saffron.Materials and Methods: To investigate the effects of gibberellic acid and plant density on the antioxidant activity and active ingredients of saffron, an experiment was conducted with a factorial arrangement based on a randomized complete block design at the Agricultural Research Station, University of Birjand during 2017-2018 growing season. Treatments consist of gibberellic acid (0 and 20 ppm) and plant density (100, 200, and 300 corms.m-2) with three replications. After the land preparation operation including initial plowing, disk, and land leveling, plots with dimensions of 1x2 meters were created. The distance between the plots was 50 cm and the distance between the blocks was 2 meters (including the irrigation ditches). Since it is important to choose a quality root for planting in order to create a high yield, healthy roots without wounds and scratches and free from any kind of disease were prepared and planted after weighing (the average weight of each root is 8 grams). Anthocyanin, phenol, antioxidant activity, safranal, crocin, picrocin, dry stigma yield, and photosynthetic pigments were measured. Data were analyzed using SAS 9.1 software and means were compared based on the Duncan test. Results and Discussion: The results showed that gibberellic acid had a significant effect on different traits (P<0.05). The highest amount of phenol (629.77 mg. 100 g dry weight-1) and antioxidant (39.53%) was obtained from the gibberellic acid treatment. Therefore, the effect of gibberellic acid at the level of one percent on stigma anthocyanin was also significant and the rate of this trait was 24% higher in the treatment of gibberellic acid application than the non-application treatment. Active ingredients of saffron are influenced by gibberellic acid treatments. The highest safranal (32.5 %), crocin (140.4 %), and picrocin (58.1%) obtained from the use of gibberellic acid, and the lowest safranal (28/3%), crocin (125.1 %), and picrocin (56.6 %) obtained from control. A planting density of 300 corms.m-2 had the highest dry stigma yield. Chlorophyll a and total were increased by application of 20 ppm of gibberellic acid by 14% and 12%, respectively, compared to the control. Plant density treatments were significantly affected only on some traits of active ingredients (safranal and picrocin) at the level of one percent and the highest these were obtained from plant density with 100 corms.m-2, but it had no significant effect on other traits. Conclusion: The current study's findings revealed that the use of 20 ppm gibberellic acid had positive effects on qualitative traits of saffron and low planting density (100 corms.m-2) affected only some traits of saffron active ingredients (safranal and picrocin) and high planting density (300 corms.m-2) affected the dry stigma yield.
Mojtaba Akbari Shooshood; Javad Rezaei; Mahdi Ayyari Noushabadi; Yousef Rouzbehan
Abstract
Introduction: Every year, a significant amount of saffron petals remains as a by-product after harvesting and separating the thread-like parts of the flower (stigmas). The saffron stigma constitutes only 7.4% of the flower's weight and the remaining 92.6% is unused. This plant residue (petals) is a valuable ...
Read More
Introduction: Every year, a significant amount of saffron petals remains as a by-product after harvesting and separating the thread-like parts of the flower (stigmas). The saffron stigma constitutes only 7.4% of the flower's weight and the remaining 92.6% is unused. This plant residue (petals) is a valuable source of plant bioactive compounds (phytobiotics), which based on previous studies, has useful effects on rumen fermentation, digestion and diet efficiency. However, there is no specific information about the effect of this by-product on ruminal microbial populations, enzymatic activity, antioxidant health, as well as the mechanism of effectiveness. In the present study, it was hypothesized that the use of low levels of saffron petals in the diet (as a natural additive) could improve microorganism populations, hydrolytic enzymes and antioxidant health of the rumen. Therefore, this research was carried out to investigate the mechanism of the positive effects of saffron petals on the energy and nitrogen metabolism and antioxidant health of the sheep rumen using the in vitro method. Materials and Methods: Experimental treatments included a diet without saffron petals (control) and diets containing 1, 2, and 3% of saffron petals (based on dry matter). The 24 and 72-h gas production tests were performed in 2 series (runs; in different weeks) and 3 replicates in each run (i.e., 6 observations per treatment at each incubation time). The gas production from the samples incubated in the 100-mL glass syringes was recorded. Then, the protozoa (using a hemocytometer and light microscope), cellulolytic and proteolytic bacteria (using liquid medium and Hungate tubes), hydrolytic enzymes (via chemical methods and photometry), methane (by injecting NaOH solution to absorb CO2) and antioxidant capacity (via ferric reducing antioxidant power assay) were measured. Truly degraded substrate was determined by boiling fermentation residues in the neutral detergent solution and weighing, ammonia-N by phenol-hypochlorite method, and the volatile fatty acids (VFA) using gas chromatography. Microbial biomass production, digestibility, metabolizable energy and partitioning factor were estimated using the equations. Data were analyzed using the Proc GLM of SAS 9.1 in a completely randomized design (6 observations per treatment). Results and Discussion: The inclusion of different levels of saffron petals in the diet decreased the in vitro ruminal protozoa population (P<0.05), due to its bioactive components, which damage the structure and function of the protozoa membrane, deactivate protozoa enzymes or deprive protozoa of the substrate and metal ions needed for their metabolism. Moreover, saffron petals increased the cellulolytic bacteria numbers and microbial biomass production (P<0.05). This was due to the reduction of protozoa, which leads to the reduction of the bacteria predation and thus improves the growth and population of the cellulolytics. The ruminal fibrolytic enzymes and amylase activity decreased with the use of saffron petals in the diet (P<0.05), because of the higher cellulolytic bacteria and microbial biomass, i.e., higher bacteria activity. These improvements resulted in more (P<0.05) diet digestibility, metabolizable energy, total VFA and truly degraded substrate in the saffron petals-containing groups. The inclusion of saffron petals in the diet resulted in decreasing in vitro ruminal methane release, ammonia-N production and acetate-to-propionate ratio (P<0.05). These changes were due to the decreased protozoa numbers leading to less hydrogen supply for methanogens and higher hydrogen shift toward propionate, as well as less deamination process and ruminal nitrogen recycling. Another reason was the increase of cellulolytic bacteria that consume ammonia as their main nitrogen source. Antioxidant capacity increased with the use of saffron petals in the diet (P<0.05), due to the bioactive compounds and antioxidants (such as flavonoids) present in this plant residue. The maximum truly degraded substrate was observed in the diet containing 3% of saffron petals. The lowest methane, protozoa and ammonia were in diets containing 2 and 3% of saffron petals. Moreover, adding 2 and 3% of saffron petals caused the highest antioxidant power. Conclusion: The results showed that the positive effect of saffron petals on the ruminal metabolism and antioxidative health of sheep, in vitro, was due to the beneficial changes that occurred in microbial populations (increase of cellulolytic bacteria and decrease of protozoa), hydrolytic enzymes (fibrolytic enzymes and amylase) and its antioxidants. Therefore, low levels (up to 3% of diet) of saffron petals can be used as a natural phytobiotic additive to improve rumen fermentation and reduce loss of energy and nitrogen resources, although it is better to confirm the results in vivo
elnaz farajzadeh memari tabrizi
Abstract
Introduction: Iran is considered a water-scarce country and a large part of its water resources evaporates. According to research, about 90% of the country's water is used in agriculture, of which more than 60% is wasted due to choosing wrong methods for irrigation and some other cases. This issue has ...
Read More
Introduction: Iran is considered a water-scarce country and a large part of its water resources evaporates. According to research, about 90% of the country's water is used in agriculture, of which more than 60% is wasted due to choosing wrong methods for irrigation and some other cases. This issue has caused the farmers to seriously face water shortage, increase in cost and decrease in the amount of cultivation. To prevent this problem, researchers have made polymers that can greatly reduce the occurrence of these problems. These polymers are called water absorbent powder. Super absorbents are compounds that can play a very effective role in water crises. On the other hand, due to the fact that absorbents are a place to store moisture in the soil, they can provide fertilizers and other inputs used in agriculture more effectively to plants. Materials and Methods: This study is to investigate the effect of strengthening different types of moisture absorbents (no use of super absorbent, use of natural super absorbent and use of synthetic super absorbent) with different types of hormones (no use of hormone, use of auxin hormone and use of cytokine hormone), and whole foods (no use of fertilizer, use of chemical fertilizer and use of Nano fertilizer) were on the growth and quantitative and qualitative characteristics of saffron. The experiment was conducted in two crop years 1401 and 1402 as a randomized complete block design in three replications. Results and Discussion: Based on the results of this study, the use of artificial and natural super absorbents, fertilizers and hormones led to an increase in flower production and stigma weight of saffron. The combination of these treatments, especially the combination of super absorbents with hormones and fertilizers, had a more positive effect on improving growth and product quality. In addition, the use of these treatments led to an increase in the content of chlorophyll and nutrients required by the plant, an increase in the percentage of safranal and antioxidant properties of the product, and an improvement in the amount of nutrients in saffron leaves. Also, it has been observed that the use of super absorbents and fertilizers along with hormones can significantly improve the amount of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and iron in saffron leaves. This increase in nutrients leads to the improvement of plant growth and development and finally leads to increase in production and improvement of product quality.Conclusion: Based on the results of this study, the use of moisture absorbents, especially artificial moisture absorbents reinforced with Nano fertilizer and cytokine hormone, can play a very effective role in reducing water consumption and improving the growth and production of saffron. In addition, the strengthening of absorbents with hormones and food can be a very effective achievement in increasing the production of plants, especially medicinal plants such as saffron in dry conditions.The experiment was conducted in two crop years 2022 and 2023 as a randomized complete block design in three replications. Based on the results of this study, the use of synthetic and natural super absorbents, fertilizers and hormones led to an increase in flower production and stigma weight of saffron. The combination of these treatments, especially the combination of super absorbents with hormones and fertilizers, had a more positive effect on improving growth and product quality. In addition, the use of these treatments led to an increase in the content of chlorophyll and nutrients required by the plant, an increase in the percentage of safranol and antioxidant properties of the product, and an improvement in the amount of nutrients in saffron leaves. It has also been observed that the use of super absorbents and fertilizers along with hormones can significantly improve the amount of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and iron in saffron leaves. This increase in nutrients leads to the improvement of plant growth and development and finally leads to increase in production and improvement of product quality.
Mohammad Azimi Gandomani; Mostafa Alinaghizadeh
Abstract
Introduction: Proper nutrient management is becoming a key component in enhancing crop yield under variable environmental conditions, as it supports plant growth and tolerance to severe constraints such as drought stress and soil impoverishment. Biofertilizers, in addition to regulating nutrient uptake, ...
Read More
Introduction: Proper nutrient management is becoming a key component in enhancing crop yield under variable environmental conditions, as it supports plant growth and tolerance to severe constraints such as drought stress and soil impoverishment. Biofertilizers, in addition to regulating nutrient uptake, serve as an effective alternative to chemical fertilizers, ensuring sustainable, safe, and stable agricultural production and biomass. Given the benefits of biofertilizers, formulating an appropriate fertilizer combination that prevents excessive yield reduction under limited water resources is crucial. Materials and Methods: To study the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of saffron flowers under the influence of various biofertilizers and irrigation regimes, an experiment was conducted over two agricultural years (2021-2022 and 2022-2023) in the agricultural lands of Ziar city. This experiment was implemented as split plots in a randomized complete block design with three replications. In this experiment, deficit irrigation at three levels (50%, 75%, and 100%) was considered as the main factor, and free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria (B-N), potassium-solubilizing bacteria (B-K), phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (B-P), their combinations, and a control without fertilizer at eight levels were the sub-factors. The water requirement for saffron was estimated at 3,280 cubic meters per hectare using the Cropwat software, based on long-term meteorological data from 1994 to 2018. Irrigation was conducted using a meter and in basin irrigation method. In the first year, the first irrigation was done immediately after planting. Overall, four irrigation sessions were carried out each year (before flowering, after flowering, mid-March, and late April). The irrigation amounts for the 50%, 75%, and 100% treatments were 1,640, 2,460, and 3,280 cubic meters, respectively. Due to the intense competition of weeds with the crop and the prevention of growth, and because the experiment was focused on the effect of biofertilizer on the plant, the use of herbicides was not feasible. Therefore, weed control was manually done twice in February and April in both experimental years. Results and Discussion: The results indicated that the highest number of flowers (79.9 m-2), fresh flower weight (31.4 g. m-2), dry stigma weight (0.492 g. m-2), dry style weight (0.122 g. m-2), and dry flower weight without stigma and style (5.09 g. m-2) were obtained in the 100% water requirement treatment combined with NPK biofertilizer. On the other hand, the qualitative characteristics of saffron showed that the highest amounts of crocin (253 mg. g-1), picrocrocin (35 mg. g-1), and safranal (121 mg. g-1) were achieved in the 75% water requirement treatment combined with NPK biofertilizer. Conclusion: Overall, the results of this experiment demonstrated that with increasing stress intensity from 100% to 50% water requirement, the characteristics such as fresh flower weight, number of flowers, dry stigma weight, dry style weight, and dry flower weight without stigma and style decreased. On the other hand, at all three levels of water requirement, the application of various biofertilizers (nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, and potassium-solubilizing bacteria) either singly, in pairs, or in triplets mitigated the negative effects of stress, although the dual and triple combinations had more positive effects. Additionally, the qualitative traits results showed that in all fertilizer treatments, applying the irrigation regime from 100% to 75% increased the amounts of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, but with the increase in stress intensity to 50%, the amounts of these traits decreased, although different biofertilizers reduced the negative effects of stress. Ultimately, to achieve optimal performance, the best treatment was 100% water requirement irrigation combined with NPK biofertilizer, while in terms of quality, 75% water requirement irrigation combined with NPK biofertilizer was the best treatment.
.png){kind=spacer}
_(2).jpg){kind=small}
)
