Document Type : Original Article
Authors
1 Assistant Professor in Crop Ecology, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
2 Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
3 Master of Agricultural Economics, Ferdowsi University, Mashhad, Iran
Abstract
In order to assess the environmental impacts of saffron agroecosystems during the first to seventh years in the two counties of Ghaen and Torbat-e Heydariyeh as two important poles of saffron production at different levels of inputs and livestock manure (less than 100, 100-150 and more than 150 t.ha-1), a study by using life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted in 2015. Based on ISO14044 method, LCA was computed in four steps including goal definition and scoping, inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment (such as global warming, terrestrial eutrophication, aquatic eutrophication and acidification categories) and integration & interpretation. Functional unit was considered as one ton flower. The results showed that consumption of inputs such as fuel, livestock manure and chemical fertilizer in Torbat-e Heydariyeh was higher than Ghaen. The highest flower yield in Ghaen and Torbat-e Heydariyeh counties were obtained at the lowest levels of livestock manure (with 1.47 and 1.66 t.ha-1, respectively). The maximum value of aquatic eutrophication potential in Ghaen and Torbat-e Heydariyeh counties were related to the highest livestock manure level with 4.861 and 10.983 PO4 equiv./t flower, respectively. The highest of environmental indicator in the two counties of Ghaen and Torbat-e-Heydariyeh were calculated for the maximum livestock manure with 1.34 and 3.18 Ecox per one ton of flower. Considering the high levels of environmental impact of saffron agroecosystems especially in Torbat-e-Heydarieh, it is suggested to apply strategies such as intercropping, minimum tillage, and optimum levels of organic fertilizers.
Keywords
Afif, E., Matar, A., Torrent, J., 1993. Availability of phosphate applied to calcareous soils of West Asia and North Africa. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57, 756-760.
Ait-aubahou, A., El-otmani, M., 1999. Saffron cultivation in Morocco. In: M. Negbi (Ed.). Saffron. Harwood Academic Publication, Amsterdam. p. 154.
Anonymous. 2012. Non-oil exports of 8.6 billion dollars in the first quarter of the year <files.spac.ir>. [in Persian]
Bakhtiari, A.A., Hematian, A., Sharifi, A., 2015. Energy analyses and greenhouse gas emissions assessment for saffron production cycle. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 22(20), 16184-16201.
Barton, L., Kiese, R., Gatter, D., Butterbach-bahl, K., Buck, R., Hinz, C., Murphy, D., 2008. Nitrous oxide emissions from a cropped soil in a semi-arid climate. Glob. Change Biol. 14, 177-192.
Biswas, W.K., Barton, L., Carter, D., 2008. Global warming potential of wheat production in Western Australia: A life cycle assessment. Water Environ. J. 22, 206–216.
Boan, L.C., Legget, G.E., 2001. Phosphorus and zinc concentrations in Russet burbank potato tissue in relation to development of zinc deficiency symptoms. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 28, 229- 232.
Bonesmo, H., Skjelvåg, A.O., Janzen, H.H., Klakegg, O., Einar Tveito, O.E., 2012. Greenhouse gas emission intensities and economic efficiency in crop production: a systems analysis of 95 farms. Agric. Syst. 110, 142–151.
Bouwman, A.F., 1990. Exchange of greenhouse gases between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. In: A.F. Bouwman (Ed.), Soils and the greenhouse effect (pp. 61–127). Chichester: Wiley.
Braschkat, J., Patyk, A., Quirin, M., Reinhardt, G.A., 2003. Life cycle assessment of bread production–a comparison of eight different scenarios. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector, Bygholm, Denmark.
Brentrup, F., Palliere, C., 2008. GHG emissions and energy efficiency in European nitrogen fertiliser production and use. Proc. International Fertiliser Society, December 11, York, UK.
Brentrup, F., Kusters, J., Kuhlmann, H., Lammel, J., 2004a. Environmental impacts assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment methodology, I. Theorical concept of a LCA method tailored to crop production. Europ. J. Agron. 20, 247-264.
Brentrup, F., Küsters, J., Lammel, J., Barraclough, P., Kuhlmann, H., 2004b. Environmental impact assessment of agricultural production systems using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology: II. The application to N fertilizer use in winter wheat production systems. European Journal of Agronomy, 20(3), 265–279.
Cellura, M., Longo, S., Mistretta, M., 2012. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of protected crops: an Italian case study. J. Clean. Prod. 28, 56-62.
Charles, R., Jolliet, O., Gillard, G., Pellet, D., 2006. Environmental analysis of intensity level in wheat production using life cycle assessment. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 113, 216-225.
Cronbach, L.J., 1951. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika. 16(3), 297-334.
Crutzen, P.J., 1981. Atmospheric chemical processes of the oxides of nitrogen, including nitrous oxide. In: C.C. Delwiche (Ed.), Denitrification, nitrification, and atmospheric nitrous oxide (pp. 17–44). New York: Wiley.
Delgado, A., Madrid, A., Kassem, S., Andreu, L., Campillo, M.C., 2002. Phosphorus fertilizer recovery from calcareous soils amended with humic and fulvic acids. Plant Soil. 245, 277-286.
Dyer, J.A., Desjardins, R.L., 2003. The impact of farm machinery management on greenhouse gas emissions from Canadian agriculture. J. Sustain. Agric. 20, 59–74.
Esmaielpour, B., Khorramdel, S., Amin Ghafori, A., 2015. Study of environmental impacts for potato Agroecosystems of Iran based on nitrogen fertilizer by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. Electronic Journal of Crop Production 8(3), 199-224. [in Persian with English Summary]
Fageria, N.K., 2009. The use of nutrients in plants. Taylor & Francis Group, CRC Press, 430 p.
Fallahpour, F., Aminghafouri, A., Ghalegolab Behbahani, A., Bannayan, M., 2012. The environmental impact assessment of wheat and barley production by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 14, 979-992
Finkbeiner, M., Inaba, A., Tan, R.B.H., Christiansen, K., Klüppel, H.J., 2006. The new international standards for life cycle assessment: ISO14040 and ISO14044. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11(2), 80–85.
Guinée, J.B., 1996. Data for the Normalization Step within Life Cycle Assessment of Products. CML Paper No. 14 (Revised version). CML (Centre of Environmental Science), Leiden.
Guinée, J.B., 2001. Life cycle assessment: an operational guide to the ISO standards. Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University, Leiden.
Hayashi, K., 2005. Practical implications of functional units in life cycle assessment for horticulture: Intensiveness and environmental impacts (Vol. 1, pp. 368–371). LCM: Innovation by Life Cycle Management: Barcelona, Spain.
Iriarte, A., Rieradevall, J., Gabarrell, X., 2010. Life cycle assessment of sunflower and rapeseed as energy crops under Chilean conditions. J. Clean. Prod. 18, 336–345.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)., 2006. ISO 14040: 2006 (E) Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework.
Kafi, M., Rashed Mohasel, M.H., Koocheki, A., Mollafilabi, A., 2002. Saffron, Production and Processing. Zaban va Adab Press, Iran. 276 pp. (In Persian).
Khanali, M., Movahedi, M., Yousefi, M., Jahangiri, S., Khoshnevisan, B., 2016. Investigating energy balance and carbon footprint in saffron cultivation– A case study in Iran. J. Clean. Prod. 115(1), 162-171.
Khorramdel, S., Rezvani Moghaddam, P., Amin Ghafori, A., 2014. Evaluation of environmental impacts for wheat Agroecosystems of Iran by using Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Cereal Res. 4(1), 27-44. [in Persian with English Summary]
Khorramdel, S., Ghorbani, R., Amin Ghafori, A., 2015. Evaluation of environmental impacts for wheat Agroecosystems of Iran by using Life Cycle Assessment methodology. J. Plant Prod. Res. 22(1), 243-264. [in Persian with English Summary]
Khorramdel, S., Shabahng, S., Amin Ghafori, A., 2016. Study of environmental impacts for sugar beet agroecosystems in Khorasan Province by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Final Report, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Masshad, Iran. [in Persian with English Summary]
Khoshnevisan, B., Rafiei, S., Omid, M., Keyhani, A., Movahedi, M., 2013. Assessing of energy indices and environmental impacts of potato production (Case study: Fereydoonshahr region, Isfahan province). Iran. J. Biosyst. Eng. 44(1), 57-66. [in Persian with English Summary]
Kopiñski, J., 2012. Realization of environmental and economic objectives by the farms of various specialization directions (in Polish). Problems Agric. Eng., 2: 37-45.
Kronvang, B., Rubak, G.H., Heckrath, G., 2009. International phosphorus workshop: Diffuse phosphorus loss to surface water bodies- risk assessment, mitigation options, and ecological effects in river basins. J. Environ. Qual. 38, 1924–1929
Lal, R., 2004. Carbon emission from and farm operations. Environ. Int. 30, 981-990.
Mahler, R.L., Koehler, F.E., Lutcher, L.K., 1994. Nitrogen source, timing of application and placement: Effects on winter wheat production. Agron. J. 86, 637-642.
Mila i Canals, L., Burnip, G.M., Cowell, S.J., 2006. Evaluation of the environmental impacts of apple production using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Case study in New Zealand. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 114, 226-238.
Mirbagheri, E., Abbaspour, A., Rohani, A., Ghorbani, H., 2012. Evaluation of phosphorus status in some potato fields of Mojen region in Semnan Province. Iran. J. Soil Res. 26(3), 235-243. [in Persian with English Summary]
Moayedi Shahraki, E., Jami Al-Ahmadi, M., Behdani, M.A., 2010. Study of energy efficiency of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Southern Khorasan. J. Agroecol. 2(1), 55-62. [in Persian with English Summary]
Mollafilabi, A., Khorramdel, S., Amin Ghafori, A., Hosseini, M., 2014. Evaluation of environmental impacts for saffron agroecosystems of Khorasan based on nitrogen fertilizer by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). J. Saffron Res. 2(2), 165-179. [in Persian with English Summary]
Monti A., Fazio S., Venturi G., 2009. Cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment in perennial energy crops. Europ. J. Agron. 31, 77-84.
Moudrý, J., Jelínková, Z., Plch, R., Moudrý, J., Konvalina, P., Hyšpler, R., 2013. The emissions of greenhouse gases produced during growing and processing of wheat products in the Czech Republic. J. Food Agric. Environ. 11 (1), 1133-1136.
Nemecek, T., Dubois, D., Huguenin-Elie, O., and Gaillard, G., 2011. Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: I. Integerated and organic farming. Agric. Syst. 104, 217-232.
Nikkhah, A., Taheri-Rad, A.R., Khojastehpour, M., Emadi, B., Khorramdel, S., 2015. Environmental impacts of peanut production system using life cycle assessment methodology. J. Clean. Prod. 92, 84-90.
Ozkan, B., Akcaoz, H., Karadeniz, F. 2004. Energy requirement and economic analysis of citrus production in Turkey. Energy Convers. Manag. 45,1821–1830.
Rahimizadeh, M., Madani, H., Rezadoust, S., Mehraban, A., Marjani, A., 2007. Analysis of energy in agroecosystems and methods of increasing energy efficiency. In: The 6th National Energy Congress. 12-13 June, 2007. Available at:
Riemersma, S., Little, J., Ontkean, G., Moskal-Hébert, T., 2006. Phosphorus Sources and Sinks in Watersheds: A Review. Alberta Soil Phosphorus Limits Project.
Risoud, B., 2000. Energy efficiency of various French farming systems: questions and sustainability. In: Int. Conference Sustainable Energy: New Challenges for Agriculture and Implications for Land Use, Organized by Wageningen University, Netherlands, May 18–20.
Romero-Gomez, M., Suarez-Rey, E.M., Anton, A., Castilla, N., Soriano, T., 2012. Environmental impact of screenhouse and open-field cultivation using a life cycle analysis: the case study of green bean production. J. Clean. Prod. 28, 63-69.
Roy, P., Shimizu, N., Kimura, T., 2009. Life cycle inventory analysis of rice produced by local processes. JSAM. 67(1), 61–67.
Russo, G., and De Lucia, B., 2008. Environmental evaluation by means of LCA regarding the ornamental nursery production in rose and sowbread greenhouse cultivation. Acta Hort. 801, 1597-1604.
Saborbilandi, A., Vadiei, A.R., 2007. The economic analysis of saffron and its impact on farmers income, The 6th National Conference on Agricultural Economic, Iran. [in Persian]
Sahabi, H., Feizi, H., Karbasi, A., 2015. Is saffron more energy and economic efficient than wheat in crop rotation systems in northeast Iran? Sustain. Prod. Consump. 5, 29-35.
Sampathu, S.R., Shivashankar, S., Lewis, Y.S., 1984. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.): cultivation, processing, chemistry and standardization. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 20, 123–157
Sheng-Wei, N., Wang-Sheng, G., Yuan-Quan, C., Peng-Sui, A., 2010. Use of life cycle assessment methodology for determining phytoremediation potentials of maize-based cropping systems in fields with nitrogen fertilizer. J. Clean. Prod. 18, 1530-1534.
Snedecor, G.W., Cochran, W.G., 1980. Statistical Methods. Iowa State University Press.
Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D.J., May, M., Lewis, K.A., Jaggard, K., 2005. An assessment of the energy inputs and greenhouse gas emissions in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) production in the UK. Agric. Syst. 85, 101–119.
West, T.O., Marland, G., 2002. A synthesis of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, and net carbon flux in agriculture: comparing tillage practices in the United States. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 91, 217-232.
Whalen, J.K., and Chang, C., 2002. Phosphorus sorption capacities of calcareous soils receiving cattle manure applications for 25 years. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 33, 1011-1026.
Zohary, D., Hopf, M., 1994. Domestication of Plants in the Old World, second ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 189–190.
)