Safi-Allah Hamdard; Hamid Reza Fallahi; Hossein Hammami; hossein sahabi
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the important medicinal plants in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This plant has high economic value due to its pleasant taste and aroma as well as numerous medicinal properties. Therefore, the cultivation and production of this plant in areas ...
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Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the important medicinal plants in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This plant has high economic value due to its pleasant taste and aroma as well as numerous medicinal properties. Therefore, the cultivation and production of this plant in areas with suitable climatic conditions has become one of the most important economic activities. Although Iran accounts for about 90% of the global production of saffron, the yield gap of this plant in the country's fields is very high. One of the important factors in increasing the yield gap in saffron are weeds. Given the limited competitive capacity of saffron, weeds can reduce crop growth and yield if not managed well. For this reason, farmers use various methods to control weeds, including the use of herbicides. Haloxyfop R-methyl ester (super gallant) is used as a common herbicide in saffron fields to control narrow leaf weeds. However, the potential damage of this herbicide to saffron plants has not been well studied, so far. In addition, implementing strategies to increase efficiency and use lower amounts of herbicide is important for sustainable saffron production. Materials and Methods: In this study, the effect of reduced levels of super gallant herbicide (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% of the recommended dose) and the application of adjuvants (arugula oil, Citogate mineral oil and no oil application) were investigated on saffron growth and flowering in a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design with six replications. The experiment was conducted in pots, from the beginning of autumn 2023 to the end of autumn 2024, in the open environment of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Iran. Results and Discussion: The effect of experimental factors was not significant on the quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm). The experimental factors had no significant effect on the length and the number of leaves, but their interaction effect on leaf dry weight was significant. The application of herbicide and adjuvants reduced leaf dry weight, and the highest value of this index (66.6 g m-2) was obtained in the control treatment. The interaction effect of experimental factors was significant on the number of small (<3 g) and large (6-9 g) replacement corms and on the total number of replacement corms. The highest number of small corms and total number of corms were obtained in the control treatment (837 and 962 No. m-2, respectively), while the lowest number was obtained by application of arugula oil × no- herbicide (375 and 465 No. m-2, respectively) and also by the application of Citogate at a concentration of 20% herbicide (358 and 466 No. m-2, respectively). The highest number of large replacement corms (6-9 g) with flowering potential, were obtained by application of Citogate at a concentration of 20 and 40% herbicide (25 No. m-2), application of arugula oil at a concentration of 40% herbicide (16.6 No. m-2), and then by no adjuvant at a concentration of 40% herbicide (3.8 No. m-2), while there were no large corms in the other combined treatments. Similar results were observed for the yield of large corms and thereby flowering was recorded only in the mentioned treatments. The application of herbicides and adjuvants improved the mean weight of replacement corms and the weight ratio of corms to leaves. Conclusion: Overall, the results of this preliminary research showed that the application of herbicide and adjuvants reduced the number of small replacement corms and increased the allocation of photoassimilates towards replacement corms and had no inhibitory effect on the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant. This potted research showed that the use of Supergallant herbicide did not have a negative effect on saffron, but conducting field experiments in the natural environment is necessary to fully understand the response of saffron to the experimental factors in order to provide applied recommendations.
Sina Farshchin
Abstract
Introduction: In recent decades, climate change has become one of the most critical challenges facing agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This phenomenon has led to a reduction in water resources, degradation of soil quality, and shifts in cropping patterns, posing a serious threat to ...
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Introduction: In recent decades, climate change has become one of the most critical challenges facing agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This phenomenon has led to a reduction in water resources, degradation of soil quality, and shifts in cropping patterns, posing a serious threat to food security. In this context, indigenous knowledge—accumulated over generations through observation, experience, and environmental adaptation—plays a vital role in enhancing the resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems. This study, focusing on the Neyshabur Plain, investigates strategies derived from traditional knowledge in managing saffron cultivation, a drought-tolerant crop, and assesses its role in mitigating the impacts of climate change and improving resource efficiency. Materials and Methods: This research was conducted in the Neyshabur Plain, located in Razavi Khorasan Province, using a field survey method. The statistical population consisted of 1350 farmers who were members of the regional Water Users Association. A simple random sampling method was employed to select a sample of 100 farmers. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire completed via face-to-face interviews. The questionnaire focused on personal characteristics (such as age, education, and land ownership) and agronomic management practices. The collected data were analyzed using Chi-square and Spearman correlation tests with the help of SPSS and Excel software. The objective of this analysis was to examine the relationships between individual characteristics of the farmers and the extent of their use of indigenous knowledge-based strategies for climate change adaptation, particularly in relation to saffron cultivation. Results and Discussion: The findings revealed that a significant number of farmers in the Neyshabur Plain rely on traditional agricultural practices—such as the use of organic fertilizers, conservation tillage, crop rotation, and intercropping saffron with other plants—as effective means to cope with climate change. A statistically significant correlation was observed between farmers under the age of 50, their level of education, and their inclination toward adopting saffron cultivation. Farmers with larger landholdings and ownership of land and water resources were also more likely to use modern irrigation systems and engage in sustainable agricultural practices. The use of saffron, a perennial and low-water-requirement crop, not only improved the efficiency of water use but also played a substantial role in increasing the climate resilience of farming systems in the region. The results of statistical tests indicated that these indigenous and eco-friendly practices had a tangible impact on reducing vulnerability to environmental stressors. Moreover, the study highlights that the integration of indigenous knowledge with scientific innovations represents a successful model of sustainable and adaptive agriculture. Farmers who employed such integrative strategies were able to simultaneously enhance soil quality, conserve biodiversity, reduce dependency on chemical inputs, and optimize water use—all of which are critical under the current climate constraints. The Neyshabur case shows that traditional knowledge, when supported by education and access to resources, can be a powerful driver for agricultural adaptation and innovation. Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that the indigenous knowledge of farmers in the Neyshabur Plain, especially in the field of saffron cultivation, has the potential to adapt to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions. Adopting solutions based on indigenous experience and knowledge, such as returning plant residues to the soil, using organic fertilizers, intercropping, and changing the cultivation pattern to perennial plants such as saffron, has led to improving the resilience of agricultural systems against climate change. These results confirm that combining indigenous knowledge with modern scientific approaches is an effective path to achieving sustainable agriculture and reducing dependence on costly and harmful inputs. On the other hand, factors such as age, education level, and land area have also played a significant role in the tendency of farmers to these measures. Finally, it can be concluded that the development and promotion of saffron cultivation, relying on indigenous knowledge and institutional support, can be a key solution in facing the water crisis and climate change in areas similar to the Neyshabur Plain.
Ali Abedinzadeh; Ahmad Ghanbari; Mohammad Reza Asgharipour; Alireza Sirousmehr; Ahmad Ahmadian
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), recognized as the world’s most expensive agricultural and medicinal crop, holds a pivotal role in Iran’s agricultural economy, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh. After saffron harvest, the fields are typically ...
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Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), recognized as the world’s most expensive agricultural and medicinal crop, holds a pivotal role in Iran’s agricultural economy, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh. After saffron harvest, the fields are typically utilized for subsequent crops like cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) and sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), offering opportunities for crop diversification and income enhancement. This study addresses the economic challenges faced by farmers in saffron-producing regions of Iran, where soil fertility decline and water scarcity necessitate sustainable crop rotation strategies. Cumin, a drought-tolerant medicinal plant with significant export value, and sesame, a resilient oilseed crop, are promising candidates for post-saffron cultivation. The research aims to compare the quantitative and qualitative performance of these crops under varying land-use histories (saffron fields vs. fallow lands), providing insights into optimizing agricultural management and boosting farmers’ livelihoods. Understanding the influence of saffron residues, potential allelopathic effects, and soil conditions on subsequent crops is critical for developing effective farming practices in these regions. Materials and Methods: The experiment was conducted during the 2022-2023 growing season in Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh, two key saffron-producing areas in Khorasan Razavi Province, Iran. A split-plot design within a randomized complete block arrangement with three replications was employed. Main plots consisted of two prior land-use types: fields with a 5-year fallow period and fields previously cultivated with saffron (corms removed post-harvest). Subplots included two plant species: cumin and sesame. Cumin was sown at 18 kg/ha and sesame at 6 kg/ha, with seeds sourced from the Khorasan Razavi Agricultural Jihad Organization. Fertilization involved urea (400 g/plot), triple superphosphate (300 g/plot), and potassium sulfate (300 g/plot), applied in stages tailored to each crop’s growth phases. Plots measured 10 m², with 1 m spacing between subplots and 2 m between main plots. Evaluated traits included soil physical and chemical properties (e.g., pH, EC, N, P, K) before and after cultivation, yield components (e.g., seed yield, biological yield), plant growth parameters (e.g., height, seed number), and economic performance. Soil samples were analyzed for texture, organic carbon, and nutrient content. Data were statistically analyzed using SAS (version 12), with means compared via Duncan’s multiple range test at a 5% significance level. Results and Discussion: Results revealed that fields previously cultivated with saffron significantly outperformed 5-year fallow lands in terms of seed yield, biological yield, and economic returns for both cumin and sesame. In saffron fields, cumin exhibited a 15.75% increase in seed yield and an 18.71% rise in biological yield compared to fallow fields, while sesame showed a 33.26% and 23.87% increase, respectively. These improvements are likely due to enhanced soil organic matter from saffron corm residues, despite potential allelopathic effects reported in prior studies. Zaveh outperformed Torbat Heydarieh across most traits, with cumin seed yield 27.25% higher and sesame 24.94% higher, possibly due to Zaveh’s more favorable soil conditions (lower salinity, moderate alkalinity). Sesame displayed a higher harvest index (20.72% in saffron fields) than cumin (36.79%), indicating greater efficiency in converting biomass to seed. However, cumin’s economic yield was nearly three times that of sesame (93.26 million IRR vs. 32.57 million IRR), driven by higher market value and yield stability. Soil analysis showed no significant post-cultivation changes, suggesting sustained fertility in saffron fields. These findings underscore the economic superiority of cumin and the positive legacy effects of saffron cultivation on subsequent crops. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that cultivating cumin and sesame after saffron harvest is a viable strategy for enhancing farmer income and agricultural sustainability in Iran’s saffron regions. Cumin emerges as the more economically advantageous option due to its higher yield, income potential, and adaptability to local conditions, making it the recommended choice for post-saffron cultivation. Sesame, while less profitable, offers resilience and a higher harvest index, serving as a complementary crop in rotation systems. Saffron fields provide a superior starting point compared to fallow lands, highlighting the benefits of saffron residues for soil health. These results offer practical guidance for farmers and a foundation for future research into optimizing crop rotations in arid environments.
Zeinab Moinoddini
Abstract
Introduction: Iran, with its diverse climate and fertile soil, plays a significant role in the global production of agricultural products, including saffron. Saffron is one of the most valuable agricultural commodities in Iran, contributing substantially to the country's non-oil exports. Despite being ...
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Introduction: Iran, with its diverse climate and fertile soil, plays a significant role in the global production of agricultural products, including saffron. Saffron is one of the most valuable agricultural commodities in Iran, contributing substantially to the country's non-oil exports. Despite being the largest producer of saffron globally, Iran has struggled to maintain a competitive position in the global market. This study aims to analyze the structure of the global saffron market, focusing on Iran's position and the challenges it faces in maintaining its market share. The importance of saffron in Iran's agricultural sector cannot be overstated. It not only provides livelihoods for thousands of farmers but also contributes significantly to the country's foreign exchange earnings. However, the global saffron market is becoming increasingly competitive, with countries like Spain and Afghanistan emerging as strong competitors. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of the market structure using the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) and offer recommendations to enhance Iran's competitiveness in the global saffron trade. Materials and Methods: This study utilizes export data from saffron-exporting countries, obtained from the International Trade Center (ITC) website, covering the period from 2003 to 2023 (1383 to 1402 in the Persian calendar). The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was employed to measure market concentration and determine the structure of the global saffron market. The HHI is calculated by summing the squares of the market shares of all firms in the market, providing a comprehensive measure of market concentration. Results and Discussion: The analysis of Iran's saffron exports over the past two decades reveals that Iran remains the largest exporter of saffron by value, but its market share has declined in recent years. In 2022 (1402), Iran's share of global saffron exports was approximately 42%, down from previous years. The HHI analysis indicates that the global saffron market is moving from a monopolistic structure towards a more competitive one, with increasing participation from countries like Spain and Afghanistan. Additionally, the increase in saffron cultivation in countries like Afghanistan has intensified competition, further eroding Iran's dominant position.The HHI analysis reveals significant changes in global saffron market concentration over the study period (2003-2023). Key findings include:The HHI score declined from 0.55 in 2003 to 0.17 in 2023, indicating a shift from tight oligopoly toward competitive market structuresIran's market share dominance decreased from 74% to 42% of global exports by volumeSpain emerged as the volume leader in 2023 (38% share) despite minimal domestic productionAfghanistan's share grew from negligible to 12%, showing the fastest growth rate among competitors Conclusion: The study reveals that while Iran remains the dominant global producer of saffron, its market position is increasingly challenged by structural weaknesses in the value chain and growing international competition. The HHI analysis confirms a significant shift from monopolistic toward competitive market structures, with Iran's export share declining to 42% despite maintaining 85-95% of global production. This paradox stems primarily from three factors: (1) reliance on bulk exports that enable value capture by competitors, (2) inadequate processing and branding infrastructure, and (3) emerging low-cost production in countries like Afghanistan. The data particularly highlights how Spain's sophisticated repackaging and marketing strategies allow it to command 3-5x price premiums for essentially Iranian-origin saffron.
Khaled Miri; Hadi Zeraatgar; عادل پردل
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron is a subtropical species that thrives in regions characterized by mild winters and, arid summers. While it exhibits considerable cold resistance, the plant's growth cycle occurs during the autumn, winter, and early spring, necessitating favorable and temperate conditions during ...
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Introduction: Saffron is a subtropical species that thrives in regions characterized by mild winters and, arid summers. While it exhibits considerable cold resistance, the plant's growth cycle occurs during the autumn, winter, and early spring, necessitating favorable and temperate conditions during these seasons. Optimal yields are achieved at temperatures ranging from 35 to 40 ˚C and at elevations between 1300 and 2300 meters above sea level. The time of planting is a critical factor that significantly impacts the yield of agricultural products. Understanding the optimal planting period for saffron in various regions is vital for enhancing both the quantity and quality of the harvest. The suitable planting time for saffron is contingent upon the climatic conditions specific to the planting area. It is important to plant saffron corms while considering the phenological stages of the plant, specifically during the initial stage of dormancy (from June to early July) or during the third stage of dormancy (in September or early October). Establishing the optimal planting date and selecting the most suitable ecotype are essential initial steps in maximizing yield. This study was carried out with these objectives in mind, contributing to the advancement of saffron cultivation in Khash County.
Materials and Methods: A research study was carried out to assess the impact of planting date and ecotype on the yield of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) at the Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Station in the Khash region. The study employed a split-plot design based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plots consisted of four planting times: August 11, August 27, September 11, and September 27, while the sub-plots included three ecotypes: Taybad, Birjand, and Qaen Standard agronomic practices such as irrigation, weed management, and fertilization were implemented. Measurements taken included the fresh and dry weight of the stigma style, the dry weight of the stamen, and the number of flowers. In order to increase the accuracy of the experiment, two initial and final lines and also one meter above and below each plot were considered as margins and four middle lines (about 2.5 square meters) were used to harvest flowers and moved to the laboratory of Agricultural and Natural Resources Research.
Results and Discussion: The results from a three-year combined analysis indicated a significant interaction between planting date and ecotype at the 1% level. The highest values recorded for fresh and dry weight of the stigma style, dry weight of the stamen, and flower count were 72.69 kg/ha-1, 5.82 kg/ha-1, 4 kg/ha-1, and 56.96 kg/ha-1 flowers, respectively, observed at the interaction of the September 11 planting date and the Birjand ecotype. Birjand ecotype exhibited superior fresh and dry weights of stigma and pistil, dry weight of stamens, and flower count compared to the Qaen and Taybad ecotypes. The differing climatic conditions of the regions from which the ecotypes were collected may contribute to the variations in yield and the traits studied in this experiment. Previous studies indicated the time of planting in September is a critical factor that significantly impacts the yield of agricultural products, and enhancing both the quantity and quality of the harvest. The suitable planting date for saffron is contingent upon the climatic conditions specific to the planting area. The Birjand ecotype exhibited superior average dry weight of stigma and pistil, dry weight of stamen, fresh weight yield of stigma and pistil, and a higher number of flowers per square meter compared to other ecotypes.
Conclusion: It is recommended that the September 11 planting date and the Birjand ecotype be utilized to enhance the yield and yield components of saffron in the Khash region and similar climatic conditions.