Safi-Allah Hamdard; Hamid Reza Fallahi; Hossein Hammami; Hossein Sahabi
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the important medicinal plants in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This plant has high economic value due to its pleasant taste and aroma as well as numerous medicinal properties. Therefore, the cultivation and production of this plant in areas ...
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Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the important medicinal plants in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This plant has high economic value due to its pleasant taste and aroma as well as numerous medicinal properties. Therefore, the cultivation and production of this plant in areas with suitable climatic conditions has become one of the most important economic activities. Although Iran accounts for about 90% of the global production of saffron, the yield gap of this plant in the country's fields is very high. One of the important factors in increasing the yield gap in saffron are weeds. Given the limited competitive capacity of saffron, weeds can reduce crop growth and yield if not managed well. For this reason, farmers use various methods to control weeds, including the use of herbicides. Haloxyfop R-methyl ester (super gallant) is used as a common herbicide in saffron fields to control narrow leaf weeds. However, the potential damage of this herbicide to saffron plants has not been well studied, so far. In addition, implementing strategies to increase efficiency and use lower amounts of herbicide is important for sustainable saffron production. Materials and Methods: In this study, the effect of reduced levels of super gallant herbicide (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% of the recommended dose) and the application of adjuvants (arugula oil, Citogate mineral oil and no oil application) were investigated on saffron growth and flowering in a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design with six replications. The experiment was conducted in pots, from the beginning of autumn 2023 to the end of autumn 2024, in the open environment of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Iran. Results and Discussion: The effect of experimental factors was not significant on the quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm). The experimental factors had no significant effect on the length and the number of leaves, but their interaction effect on leaf dry weight was significant. The application of herbicide and adjuvants reduced leaf dry weight, and the highest value of this index (66.6 g m-2) was obtained in the control treatment. The interaction effect of experimental factors was significant on the number of small (<3 g) and large (6-9 g) replacement corms and on the total number of replacement corms. The highest number of small corms and total number of corms were obtained in the control treatment (837 and 962 No. m-2, respectively), while the lowest number was obtained by application of arugula oil × no- herbicide (375 and 465 No. m-2, respectively) and also by the application of Citogate at a concentration of 20% herbicide (358 and 466 No. m-2, respectively). The highest number of large replacement corms (6-9 g) with flowering potential, were obtained by application of Citogate at a concentration of 20 and 40% herbicide (25 No. m-2), application of arugula oil at a concentration of 40% herbicide (16.6 No. m-2), and then by no adjuvant at a concentration of 40% herbicide (3.8 No. m-2), while there were no large corms in the other combined treatments. Similar results were observed for the yield of large corms and thereby flowering was recorded only in the mentioned treatments. The application of herbicides and adjuvants improved the mean weight of replacement corms and the weight ratio of corms to leaves. Conclusion: Overall, the results of this preliminary research showed that the application of herbicide and adjuvants reduced the number of small replacement corms and increased the allocation of photoassimilates towards replacement corms and had no inhibitory effect on the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant. This potted research showed that the use of Supergallant herbicide did not have a negative effect on saffron, but conducting field experiments in the natural environment is necessary to fully understand the response of saffron to the experimental factors in order to provide applied recommendations.
Sina Farshchin
Abstract
Introduction: In recent decades, climate change has become one of the most critical challenges facing agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This phenomenon has led to a reduction in water resources, degradation of soil quality, and shifts in cropping patterns, posing a serious threat to ...
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Introduction: In recent decades, climate change has become one of the most critical challenges facing agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This phenomenon has led to a reduction in water resources, degradation of soil quality, and shifts in cropping patterns, posing a serious threat to food security. In this context, indigenous knowledge—accumulated over generations through observation, experience, and environmental adaptation—plays a vital role in enhancing the resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems. This study, focusing on the Neyshabur Plain, investigates strategies derived from traditional knowledge in managing saffron cultivation, a drought-tolerant crop, and assesses its role in mitigating the impacts of climate change and improving resource efficiency. Materials and Methods: This research was conducted in the Neyshabur Plain, located in Razavi Khorasan Province, using a field survey method. The statistical population consisted of 1350 farmers who were members of the regional Water Users Association. A simple random sampling method was employed to select a sample of 100 farmers. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire completed via face-to-face interviews. The questionnaire focused on personal characteristics (such as age, education, and land ownership) and agronomic management practices. The collected data were analyzed using Chi-square and Spearman correlation tests with the help of SPSS and Excel software. The objective of this analysis was to examine the relationships between individual characteristics of the farmers and the extent of their use of indigenous knowledge-based strategies for climate change adaptation, particularly in relation to saffron cultivation. Results and Discussion: The findings revealed that a significant number of farmers in the Neyshabur Plain rely on traditional agricultural practices—such as the use of organic fertilizers, conservation tillage, crop rotation, and intercropping saffron with other plants—as effective means to cope with climate change. A statistically significant correlation was observed between farmers under the age of 50, their level of education, and their inclination toward adopting saffron cultivation. Farmers with larger landholdings and ownership of land and water resources were also more likely to use modern irrigation systems and engage in sustainable agricultural practices. The use of saffron, a perennial and low-water-requirement crop, not only improved the efficiency of water use but also played a substantial role in increasing the climate resilience of farming systems in the region. The results of statistical tests indicated that these indigenous and eco-friendly practices had a tangible impact on reducing vulnerability to environmental stressors. Moreover, the study highlights that the integration of indigenous knowledge with scientific innovations represents a successful model of sustainable and adaptive agriculture. Farmers who employed such integrative strategies were able to simultaneously enhance soil quality, conserve biodiversity, reduce dependency on chemical inputs, and optimize water use—all of which are critical under the current climate constraints. The Neyshabur case shows that traditional knowledge, when supported by education and access to resources, can be a powerful driver for agricultural adaptation and innovation. Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that the indigenous knowledge of farmers in the Neyshabur Plain, especially in the field of saffron cultivation, has the potential to adapt to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions. Adopting solutions based on indigenous experience and knowledge, such as returning plant residues to the soil, using organic fertilizers, intercropping, and changing the cultivation pattern to perennial plants such as saffron, has led to improving the resilience of agricultural systems against climate change. These results confirm that combining indigenous knowledge with modern scientific approaches is an effective path to achieving sustainable agriculture and reducing dependence on costly and harmful inputs. On the other hand, factors such as age, education level, and land area have also played a significant role in the tendency of farmers to these measures. Finally, it can be concluded that the development and promotion of saffron cultivation, relying on indigenous knowledge and institutional support, can be a key solution in facing the water crisis and climate change in areas similar to the Neyshabur Plain.
Ali Abedinzadeh; Ahmad Ghanbari; Mohammad Reza Asgharipour; Alireza Sirousmehr; Ahmad Ahmadian
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), recognized as the world’s most expensive agricultural and medicinal crop, holds a pivotal role in Iran’s agricultural economy, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh. After saffron harvest, the fields are typically ...
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Introduction: Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), recognized as the world’s most expensive agricultural and medicinal crop, holds a pivotal role in Iran’s agricultural economy, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh. After saffron harvest, the fields are typically utilized for subsequent crops like cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) and sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), offering opportunities for crop diversification and income enhancement. This study addresses the economic challenges faced by farmers in saffron-producing regions of Iran, where soil fertility decline and water scarcity necessitate sustainable crop rotation strategies. Cumin, a drought-tolerant medicinal plant with significant export value, and sesame, a resilient oilseed crop, are promising candidates for post-saffron cultivation. The research aims to compare the quantitative and qualitative performance of these crops under varying land-use histories (saffron fields vs. fallow lands), providing insights into optimizing agricultural management and boosting farmers’ livelihoods. Understanding the influence of saffron residues, potential allelopathic effects, and soil conditions on subsequent crops is critical for developing effective farming practices in these regions. Materials and Methods: The experiment was conducted during the 2022-2023 growing season in Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh, two key saffron-producing areas in Khorasan Razavi Province, Iran. A split-plot design within a randomized complete block arrangement with three replications was employed. Main plots consisted of two prior land-use types: fields with a 5-year fallow period and fields previously cultivated with saffron (corms removed post-harvest). Subplots included two plant species: cumin and sesame. Cumin was sown at 18 kg/ha and sesame at 6 kg/ha, with seeds sourced from the Khorasan Razavi Agricultural Jihad Organization. Fertilization involved urea (400 g/plot), triple superphosphate (300 g/plot), and potassium sulfate (300 g/plot), applied in stages tailored to each crop’s growth phases. Plots measured 10 m², with 1 m spacing between subplots and 2 m between main plots. Evaluated traits included soil physical and chemical properties (e.g., pH, EC, N, P, K) before and after cultivation, yield components (e.g., seed yield, biological yield), plant growth parameters (e.g., height, seed number), and economic performance. Soil samples were analyzed for texture, organic carbon, and nutrient content. Data were statistically analyzed using SAS (version 12), with means compared via Duncan’s multiple range test at a 5% significance level. Results and Discussion: Results revealed that fields previously cultivated with saffron significantly outperformed 5-year fallow lands in terms of seed yield, biological yield, and economic returns for both cumin and sesame. In saffron fields, cumin exhibited a 15.75% increase in seed yield and an 18.71% rise in biological yield compared to fallow fields, while sesame showed a 33.26% and 23.87% increase, respectively. These improvements are likely due to enhanced soil organic matter from saffron corm residues, despite potential allelopathic effects reported in prior studies. Zaveh outperformed Torbat Heydarieh across most traits, with cumin seed yield 27.25% higher and sesame 24.94% higher, possibly due to Zaveh’s more favorable soil conditions (lower salinity, moderate alkalinity). Sesame displayed a higher harvest index (20.72% in saffron fields) than cumin (36.79%), indicating greater efficiency in converting biomass to seed. However, cumin’s economic yield was nearly three times that of sesame (93.26 million IRR vs. 32.57 million IRR), driven by higher market value and yield stability. Soil analysis showed no significant post-cultivation changes, suggesting sustained fertility in saffron fields. These findings underscore the economic superiority of cumin and the positive legacy effects of saffron cultivation on subsequent crops. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that cultivating cumin and sesame after saffron harvest is a viable strategy for enhancing farmer income and agricultural sustainability in Iran’s saffron regions. Cumin emerges as the more economically advantageous option due to its higher yield, income potential, and adaptability to local conditions, making it the recommended choice for post-saffron cultivation. Sesame, while less profitable, offers resilience and a higher harvest index, serving as a complementary crop in rotation systems. Saffron fields provide a superior starting point compared to fallow lands, highlighting the benefits of saffron residues for soil health. These results offer practical guidance for farmers and a foundation for future research into optimizing crop rotations in arid environments.
Zeinab Moinoddini
Abstract
Introduction: Iran, with its diverse climate and fertile soil, plays a significant role in the global production of agricultural products, including saffron. Saffron is one of the most valuable agricultural commodities in Iran, contributing substantially to the country's non-oil exports. Despite being ...
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Introduction: Iran, with its diverse climate and fertile soil, plays a significant role in the global production of agricultural products, including saffron. Saffron is one of the most valuable agricultural commodities in Iran, contributing substantially to the country's non-oil exports. Despite being the largest producer of saffron globally, Iran has struggled to maintain a competitive position in the global market. This study aims to analyze the structure of the global saffron market, focusing on Iran's position and the challenges it faces in maintaining its market share. The importance of saffron in Iran's agricultural sector cannot be overstated. It not only provides livelihoods for thousands of farmers but also contributes significantly to the country's foreign exchange earnings. However, the global saffron market is becoming increasingly competitive, with countries like Spain and Afghanistan emerging as strong competitors. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of the market structure using the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) and offer recommendations to enhance Iran's competitiveness in the global saffron trade. Materials and Methods: This study utilizes export data from saffron-exporting countries, obtained from the International Trade Center (ITC) website, covering the period from 2003 to 2023 (1383 to 1402 in the Persian calendar). The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) was employed to measure market concentration and determine the structure of the global saffron market. The HHI is calculated by summing the squares of the market shares of all firms in the market, providing a comprehensive measure of market concentration. Results and Discussion: The analysis of Iran's saffron exports over the past two decades reveals that Iran remains the largest exporter of saffron by value, but its market share has declined in recent years. In 2022 (1402), Iran's share of global saffron exports was approximately 42%, down from previous years. The HHI analysis indicates that the global saffron market is moving from a monopolistic structure towards a more competitive one, with increasing participation from countries like Spain and Afghanistan. Additionally, the increase in saffron cultivation in countries like Afghanistan has intensified competition, further eroding Iran's dominant position.The HHI analysis reveals significant changes in global saffron market concentration over the study period (2003-2023). Key findings include:The HHI score declined from 0.55 in 2003 to 0.17 in 2023, indicating a shift from tight oligopoly toward competitive market structuresIran's market share dominance decreased from 74% to 42% of global exports by volumeSpain emerged as the volume leader in 2023 (38% share) despite minimal domestic productionAfghanistan's share grew from negligible to 12%, showing the fastest growth rate among competitors Conclusion: The study reveals that while Iran remains the dominant global producer of saffron, its market position is increasingly challenged by structural weaknesses in the value chain and growing international competition. The HHI analysis confirms a significant shift from monopolistic toward competitive market structures, with Iran's export share declining to 42% despite maintaining 85-95% of global production. This paradox stems primarily from three factors: (1) reliance on bulk exports that enable value capture by competitors, (2) inadequate processing and branding infrastructure, and (3) emerging low-cost production in countries like Afghanistan. The data particularly highlights how Spain's sophisticated repackaging and marketing strategies allow it to command 3-5x price premiums for essentially Iranian-origin saffron.
Khaled Miri; Hadi Zeraatgar; Adel Pordel
Abstract
Introduction: Saffron is a subtropical species that thrives in regions characterized by mild winters and, arid summers. While it exhibits considerable cold resistance, the plant's growth cycle occurs during the autumn, winter, and early spring, necessitating favorable and temperate conditions during ...
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Introduction: Saffron is a subtropical species that thrives in regions characterized by mild winters and, arid summers. While it exhibits considerable cold resistance, the plant's growth cycle occurs during the autumn, winter, and early spring, necessitating favorable and temperate conditions during these seasons. Optimal yields are achieved at temperatures ranging from 35 to 40 ˚C and at elevations between 1300 and 2300 meters above sea level. The time of planting is a critical factor that significantly impacts the yield of agricultural products. Understanding the optimal planting period for saffron in various regions is vital for enhancing both the quantity and quality of the harvest. The suitable planting time for saffron is contingent upon the climatic conditions specific to the planting area. It is important to plant saffron corms while considering the phenological stages of the plant, specifically during the initial stage of dormancy (from June to early July) or during the third stage of dormancy (in September or early October). Establishing the optimal planting date and selecting the most suitable ecotype are essential initial steps in maximizing yield. This study was carried out with these objectives in mind, contributing to the advancement of saffron cultivation in Khash County.
Materials and Methods: A research study was carried out to assess the impact of planting date and ecotype on the yield of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) at the Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Station in the Khash region. The study employed a split-plot design based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plots consisted of four planting times: August 11, August 27, September 11, and September 27, while the sub-plots included three ecotypes: Taybad, Birjand, and Qaen Standard agronomic practices such as irrigation, weed management, and fertilization were implemented. Measurements taken included the fresh and dry weight of the stigma style, the dry weight of the stamen, and the number of flowers. In order to increase the accuracy of the experiment, two initial and final lines and also one meter above and below each plot were considered as margins and four middle lines (about 2.5 square meters) were used to harvest flowers and moved to the laboratory of Agricultural and Natural Resources Research.
Results and Discussion: The results from a three-year combined analysis indicated a significant interaction between planting date and ecotype at the 1% level. The highest values recorded for fresh and dry weight of the stigma style, dry weight of the stamen, and flower count were 72.69 kg/ha-1, 5.82 kg/ha-1, 4 kg/ha-1, and 56.96 kg/ha-1 flowers, respectively, observed at the interaction of the September 11 planting date and the Birjand ecotype. Birjand ecotype exhibited superior fresh and dry weights of stigma and pistil, dry weight of stamens, and flower count compared to the Qaen and Taybad ecotypes. The differing climatic conditions of the regions from which the ecotypes were collected may contribute to the variations in yield and the traits studied in this experiment. Previous studies indicated the time of planting in September is a critical factor that significantly impacts the yield of agricultural products, and enhancing both the quantity and quality of the harvest. The suitable planting date for saffron is contingent upon the climatic conditions specific to the planting area. The Birjand ecotype exhibited superior average dry weight of stigma and pistil, dry weight of stamen, fresh weight yield of stigma and pistil, and a higher number of flowers per square meter compared to other ecotypes.
Conclusion: It is recommended that the September 11 planting date and the Birjand ecotype be utilized to enhance the yield and yield components of saffron in the Khash region and similar climatic conditions.
Pariya Maghouli; Roghayyeh Afroundeh; Ameneh Pourrahim Ghouroghchi
Abstract
Introduction: Obesity and overweight are associated with many chronic diseases, including diabetes and increased inflammation. Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ known to be active in controlling body metabolism and is not simply a place for storing energy. It is a complex and highly active endocrine ...
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Introduction: Obesity and overweight are associated with many chronic diseases, including diabetes and increased inflammation. Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ known to be active in controlling body metabolism and is not simply a place for storing energy. It is a complex and highly active endocrine and metabolic organ that is not only responsible for energy production, but also produces and secretes numerous proteins such as leptin, visfatin, resistin, and adiponectin, which are called adipokines. Leptin is an important adipokine that has been of interest to researchers for its role in insulin resistance and possibly in the etiology of diabetes. In addition to its important role in regulating appetite and food intake, this hormone is associated with inflammatory and atherogenic cytokines, platelet aggregation, arterial thrombosis, hypertension, and insulin resistance. IL-6 is defined as a cytokine that is produced and released by contracting skeletal muscle fibers and exerts its effects in other organs of the body. Interleukin-6 increases fat turnover, stimulates lipolysis, and also fat oxidation. This adipokine, which is associated with obesity and insulin resistance, is a multifunctional cytokine that can regulate many cellular and biological processes, such as immune function, cell differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, etc. Diabetes is associated with subclinical systemic inflammation due to increased plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α. Given the irreversible consequences of obesity and its prevalence in society due to modern lifestyles, researchers are always looking to discover the best and most efficient treatment for obesity, of which exercise and herbal medicine are one of the methods. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks of saffron supplementation along with resistance training on serum leptin, interleukin-6, and insulin levels in overweight men.
Materials and Methods: 40 overweight students were randomly divided into 4 groups: exercise (n=10), exercise + supplement (n=10), supplement (n=10), and control (n=10). The exercise group performed resistance training for 8 weeks, 3 sessions of 90 minutes each week in the evening. Resistance training consisted of 12 exercises in 12 stations including leg press, chest press, incline chest press, seated row, deadlift, bent-knee crunch, overhead pull-up, toe raise, hamstring curl, shoulder press, barbell chin-up, and barbell curl, which were performed based on the principle of overload with rest intervals between stations and sets of 1, 1-2, and 3-5 minutes for very light, light, medium, and heavy intensities, respectively. The training for each exercise was in the very light section (20 repetitions, one set, 40% of one repetition maximum), the light section (15 repetitions, two sets, 60% of one repetition maximum), the medium section (10 repetitions, three sets, 75% of one repetition maximum), and the heavy section (4 repetitions, three sets, 90% of one repetition maximum). The supplement and exercise + supplement groups used saffron tablets at a dose of 30 mg as a supplement. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test along with the LSD post hoc test was used for comparison between groups’ differences and the paired t-test was used to compare pre- test and post-test in each group.
Results and Discussion: The results of the one-way analysis of variance test showed a significant difference in the serum levels of leptin, interleukin-6, glucose insulin and insulin resistance between the research groups (P<0.05). The levels of serum interleukin-6, leptin, and glucose and insulin resistance were significantly lower in the exercise, exercise + supplement and supplement groups compared to the control group. Also, the serum levels of interleukin-6, leptin and glucose in the exercise + supplement group were significantly lower compared to the exercise and supplement groups (P<0.05). The presence of various metabolites in saffron, especially crocin and the carotenoid crocin, and the strong effects of stimulating glucose uptake, reducing insulin resistance through peripheral tissue and inhibiting intestinal glucose absorption are mechanisms involved in improving the function of pancreatic cells and ultimately reducing serum glucose. Exercise increases glucose transport by insulin and the activity of the enzyme hexokinase II. In addition, muscle contractions increase the translocation of glucose transporter type 4 through the AMP-activated protein kinase signaling pathway, but it seems that the gradual increase in muscle mass is among the benefits of resistance training, which leads to glycemic control and increased blood glucose disposal capacity. The results of the present study showed that supplement consumption had no effect on serum leptin levels, but eight weeks of resistance training significantly reduced this index. Regarding the response of leptin to exercise, various studies have concluded that exercise programs that lead to a decrease in fat mass and body weight are mainly associated with a decrease in leptin. In the present study, a decrease in weight, body mass index, and waist-to-hip ratio was observed in the post-test of the exercise and exercise + supplement groups, but not in the supplement group.
Conclusion: It can be concluded from the results of the present study, that eight weeks of saffron supplementation and circuit resistance training both reduce serum levels of interleukin-6, glucose, leptin, insulin and insulin resistance in overweight men. The combination of exercise and saffron supplementation had more beneficial effects on serum levels of glucose, leptin and IL-6 than either of them alone.
Mahdi Ebrahimi; Mohsen Pouyan; Mohammad Ali Behdani; Sareh Hosseini; Tayebeh Shahi; Hosein Ragh Ara; Hossein Sahabi
Abstract
Introduction: Iran is the world's largest producer of saffron. Given the importance of increasing saffron production and improving its quality in the face of drought conditions, it is crucial to explore the impact of replacing some common chemical fertilizers with biological fertilizers in saffron cultivation. ...
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Introduction: Iran is the world's largest producer of saffron. Given the importance of increasing saffron production and improving its quality in the face of drought conditions, it is crucial to explore the impact of replacing some common chemical fertilizers with biological fertilizers in saffron cultivation. This substitution should be studied in the context of its potential to enhance the nutritional status of the plant and the quality of stigma apocarotenoids under drought stress conditions. Such a change could have a notable effect on increasing saffron yield and preserving agricultural ecosystems while maintaining product quality.
Materials and Methods: The research was conducted in split plots with a basic RCBD (Randomized Complete Block Design) over two consecutive years (2020-2021 and 2021-2022) at ACECR's research complex for medicinal plants. The experimental treatments consisted of two levels of water availability (50% and 100% of saffron water requirement) and six levels of fertilizer (control, 100% NPK, 50% NPK, 50% NPK with three biofertilizers, 50% NPK with four biofertilizers, and three biofertilizers). The impact of experimental treatments on the levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, iron, and zinc in leaves and corms, as well as the quantities of three apocarotenoids - crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal - in saffron stigma were studied.
Results and Discussion: Due to decreaced water availability, the nitrogen levels in saffron leaves and corms rose, with the nitrogen content in saffron leaves averaging almost 15% higher than in the corms. Despite this, the phosphorus content in the corms remained unchanged under decreaced water availability, whereas the phosphorus content in the leaves decreased significantly. These findings suggest that decreaced water availability can result in reduced phosphorus levels in saffron leaves. phosphorus content in the saffron corms was almost 61% higher compared to the leaves. Potassium content in saffron leaves remained unchanged under decreaced water availability, but significantly increased in corms. Additionally, potassium content in saffron leaves was almost 13% higher than in the corms. While iron content in saffron leaves and corms was not affected by decreaced water availability, zinc content in corms and leaves decreased with decreaced water availability. In general, saffron leaves accumulated significantly higher amounts of nitrogen, potassium, iron, and zinc compared to the corms, except for phosphorus. Fertilizer treatments significantly affected the levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in saffron leaves and stems, while iron and zinc levels remained unaffected. The recommended amount of chemical fertilizer treatment resulted in the highest levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in saffron leaves and stems. Since daughter corms store phosphorus effectively from chemical fertilizers and saffron yield depends on the amount of phosphorus in daughter corms, it is not advisable to completely replace chemical fertilizers with biological fertilizers. The level of potassium in saffron leaves and stems was not affected by the fertilizer treatments, suggesting that the application of fertilizer did not impact potassium absorption. Additionally, the levels of iron and zinc in the saffron leaves and stems were not significantly different from the control across all fertilizer treatments in the experiment. Overall, the most effective fertilizer treatment was using 100% of the required chemical fertilizer for saffron. This was closely followed by applying 50% of the chemical fertilizer combined with four types of biofertilizers, leading to the highest levels of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc in saffron leaves and corms.The levels of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal in saffron stigma varied between the two years of the experiment. Specifically, the levels of crocin and picrocrocin were higher in the second year, while the level of safranal was higher in the first year. Additionally, it was observed that drought stress did not significantly impact the levels of any of the apocarotenoids examined in this study. The levels of crocin and safranal were not impacted by the use of fertilizers. However, in cases where the availability of nutrients increased (due to the application of chemical fertilizers at the recommended level, or a combination of chemical and biological fertilizers), the levels of picrocrocin decreased.
Conclusion: The overall conclusion is that it is possible to enhance the quality of saffron and make up for nutrient deficiencies through the concurrent application of biological and chemical fertilizers in saffron farms even under decreaced water availability. However further research is necessary to clarify the unknown aspects of this area.